Egypt-Control by Other Nations

French Control

For a brief period, in 1798, the French occupied Egypt under Napoleon Bonaparte. France, however, never acquired full domain or control. Napoleon’s invasion was too short-lived to have any lasting impact, but it marked the beginning of a renewed European interest in Egypt.



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Muhammad Ali

Muhammad Ali was an Ottoman general who seized power of the country with the help of the local population. In 1805 he was declared governor of Egypt by the Ottoman sultan. Muhammad destroyed or bought off all of his opponents until he was the only source of power in the country. He embarked on wars of expansion to gain control of trade routes in Egypt. He conquered Sudan from 1820-1822.


British Control

Egyptian expansion and control over trade routes conflicted with Great Britain's growing interest in the Middle East as a market for its flourishing industrial production. Threat to the integrity of the Ottoman Empire also disturbed Britain. For these reason, Britain opposed Egypt, and decided to step in. Muhammad was offered hereditary possession of Egypt, but he had to give up other conquests. When Muhammad died in 1849 Egypt came increasingly under European influence. Said Pasha, his son, made attempts to modernize the government. However, he left a huge debt when he died. His successor, Ismail Pasha, increased the debt even more by borrowing from European bankers to develop the country. This drove the country into bankrupcy and ultimately into British control and French creditors. In 1876 an Anglo-French commission took charge of Egypt's finances. Army officers led a rebellion to end the foreign control. Tawfik, the leader of the country at the time, appealed to the British for help. Britain occupied Egypt in 1882.

The British were interested in Egypt for the Suez Canal, which was the short route to India. The British had promised to evacuate the country once order was resotred. However, they broke this promise and the British army remained in occupation until 1954. Tawfik remained on the throne as a figurehead prince. However, the British general consul ruled the country.

During the late 1800s and early 1900s Mustafa Kamil, a European-educated lawyer, led a nationalist movement and was backed by Tawkif's successor, Abbas II. Kamil pushed for self-government and an end to the British occupation. He was ignored by the British authorities. At this time, grain had to be imported to feed the rural population in Egypt because the Egyptian agriculture was completely dominated by cotton grown to feed the textile mill of Lancashire, England. Irrigation projects were carried out to increase the arable land. In time the entire debt to Britain was paid.

The promises Britain made to evacuate Egypt diminished and the Suez Canal became an integral part of British Mediterranean defense policy. Britain's illegal occupation of Egypt was internationally sanctioned in 1904. The French recognized British rights in Egypt in return for British acknowlegment of French rights in Morocco.


World War I

The outbreak of World War I in 1914 brought nationalist activities in Egypt to an end. When Turkey entered the war on the side of Germany, Britain declared Egypt a protectorate and deposed Abbas II in favor of his uncle, Hussein Kamil. Kamil was given the title of sultan. Legal ties between Egypt and Turkey were finally severed, and Britain promised Egypt some changes in government once the war ended.

The war years were hard on Egyptian peasants. They were made to dig ditches and their livestock was confiscated by the army; inflation was also high. These factors caused increasing resentment against the British and set the stage for the violent upheaval to come after the war ended in 1918.


Egypt as an independent monarchy

Egyptians looked forward to the end of WWI because there was promise that former Ottoman territories would be allowed self-determination. The Wafd ("delegation") was a nationalist movement formed in 1918 to plan for the country's future. However, hopes were dashed when Britain refused to consider Egyptian needs, and Saad Zaghul, the leader of the Wafd, was exiled. Violent revolts resulted and Britain was forced to reconsider. Zaghul was released, but his efforts to get a hearing at the Paris Peace Conference were crushed by the British. The violence continued until 1922, when Britain declared Egypt an independent monarchy. However, the British reserved the right to intervene in Egyptian affairs if their interests were threatened. This robbed Egypt of any real independence and allowed British control to continue.

A new constitution in 1924 set up a bicameral legislature, but Fuad, the king, was then given the right to nominate the premier and to suspend Parliament. A tripartite struggle resulted among the king, the British ambassador, and the Wafd. One government after another fell after trying unsuccessfully to rid Egypt of the British. In 1936, an Anglo-Egyptian treaty was finally signed. However, the treaty continued the physical occupation of Egypt by the British army and involvement of the British army in internal affairs.

The Coup of 1952

World War II brought inflation, interparty strife, and disillusion with the Wafd. Further political bargaining was suspended. Some groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood and Communists developed during this time.

In 1948 Egypt and several other Arab states went to war in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent the establishment of the state of Israel. The army blamed the government for its loss and turned against King Faruk, Fuad's son. Faruk had a blatant disregard for public well-being and morality. In 1952 a group of army officers carried out a successful coup d'etat that ousted the king. In 1953 Egypt was declared a republic.

The first president of the republic was General Muhammad Naguib. However, he was merely a figurehead. The real leader was Gamal Abdel Nasser. He was part of the Revolutionary Command Council, the officers who had plotted the revolution. Eventually Nasser assumed complete executive authority and in 1956 was elected president.

The Suez Crisis

The Western world would not supply Egypt with armaments so Nasser how to turn to the Eastern bloc. In retaliation, the World Bank turned down Egypt's request for a loan to finance the Aswan High Dam. This angered Britain and France, the main stockholders in the canal. They then joined with Israel in attacking Egypt in 1956. Pressure from the United States and the USSR forced the three countries to evacuate Egyptian territory. United Nations forces were place as a buffer between Egypt and Israel.

Recent Problems

In 1992 Muslim fundamentalists began launching violent attacks against government officials, Coptic Christians, tourists, unveiled women, and others. These fundamentalists wanted to replace the existing government with one based on strict Islamic law. As a result of the attacks, revenues from tourism dropped 42% between 1992 and 1993.


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